The Four Major Indo-european Language Families Are Germanic, Greek, and Celtic.
The approximate nowadays-day distribution of the Indo-European branches within their homelands of Europe and Asia:
Non-Indo-European languages
Dotted/striped areas indicate where multilingualism is common.
One source for Greek mythology may be the combined mythologies of the people frequently called Indo-European or, more accurately, Proto-Indo-Europeans. The term and its awarding to a people, a culture, and mythology is debated, just it is important to know the bones outline of the theory. The summary is that linguistic evidence indicates that Greek, Latin, Iranian, German, and many other languages descended from an extinct mutual original linguistic communication. Peradventure comparing the myths in these unlike cultures tin help reconstruct an Indo-European mythology that has formed the basis for some stories.
Reconstructing the Indo-European Language [edit | edit source]
Linguistically, Indo-European is a language family of interrelated languages that presumably can be traced back to a common antecedent. The linguistic evidence for the ancient ancestor common language is very potent, but the verbal details of its reconstruction and its implications for a original people and culture are debated. Members of the Indo-European linguistic communication family include these major groups:
| Anatolian | Hellenic | Indo-Iranian | Italic | Celtic | Germanic | Balto-Slavic |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hittite[i] | Mycenaean Greek[2] | Sanskrit | Latin | Irish | Gothic | Russian language|Russian |
| Luwian | Greek | Iranian languages | Romance languages | Breton | German | Serbocroatian Polish |
| Hindi | French Italian Spanish | Dutch | Lithuanian | |||
| Urdu | Portuguese Romanian | English | Latvian |
How do we know these languages are related? The linguistic bear witness of regular sound changes shows that these language families branched off from an ancestral linguistic communication. The older the documented evidence, the more similar the languages are. Earlier presenting the show for the Proto-Indo-European linguistic communication, consider this evidence for a more secure historical evolution, the transformation of Latin into the Romance languages, such as Romanian, Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, French:
| Original Latin | Italian | French | Castilian | Portuguese | Romanian |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nationem sound /ti / | nazione / tsi / | nation / si / | nación / si / | nação / sa / | națiune / tsi / |
| sex | sei | half dozen | seis | seis | șase |
| octo | otto | huit | ocho | oito | opt |
| mater | madre | mère | madre | mãe | mamă |
| mitt | mano | main | mano | mão | mâna |
| videre | vedere | voir | ver | ver | vedea |
These words were picked more or less at random, but the focus was on words that tend to be conservative and not borrowed from other languages. Numbers, words near family members or body parts tend to be conservative. The sounds shift generally following elementary rules, depending, for instance, on whether the sound is in an emphasized syllable or not. Even though in that location are often gaps in the documentary record for how Latin words inverse into the Romance languages, historical linguistics is able to explain the whole transition convincingly.
Similarly, looking at conservative words from early representatives of each of the Indo-European family unit reveals that the languages are closely related. Here is a listing of the unlike terms for the offset x numbers in diverse Indo-European languages:
Indo-european key numbers [edit | edit source]
| Number | Reconstructed Proto-Indo-European | Different Languages |
|---|---|---|
| i | *Hoi-no- | Lith. vienas, Latv. viens, Gaul. oinos, Gm. ein/eins, Gk. oios, Av. aēuua, Ir. óin/aon, Lat. ūnus, OCS edinŭ, ON einn, Osset. iu/ieu, Pers. aiva-/yek, Political leader. jeden, Russ. odin, Ved. aika, Umbr. uns, Goth. ains, Welsh un |
| *sem- | Arm. mi/mek/million, Lith. sa, sav-as, Gm. saman/zusammen, Gk. εἷς heis, Hitt. san, Av. hakeret, Ir. samail/samhail, Lat. semel, Pers. hama/hamin, Russ. sam, Ved. sakŕ̥t, Welsh hafal, ON sami, Goth. sama | |
| two | *du(westward)o- | Hitt. dā-, Luv. tuwi-, Ved. dvā(u), Av. duua, Pers. duva/do, Gk. δύω dúō, Lat. duō ON tveir, Goth. twai, Gm. zwêne/zwei, Gaul. vo, Ir. dá/dó, Welsh dau, Arm. erkow/yerku/yergu, Toch. wu/wi, Latv. divi, Lith. dù, OCS dŭva, Political leader. dwa, Russ. dva, |
| three | *trei- | Hitt. teriyaš (gen. pl.), Lyc. trei, Ved. tráyas, Av. θrāiiō, Pers. çi/se, Gk. τρεῖς treĩs, Lat. trēs, Osc. trís, Umbr. trif, ON þrír, Goth. þreis, Gm. drī/drei, Gaul. treis, Ir. treí/trí, Welsh tri, Arm. erek῾/yerek῾/yerek῾, Toch. tre/trai, Latv. trīs, Lith. trỹs, OCS trije, Pol. trzy, Russ. tri |
| four | *kʷetwor- | Lyc. teteri, Ved. catvāras, Av. caθuuārō, Pers. /čahār, Gk. téttares, Lat. quattuor, Osc. petora, Umbr. petor, ON fjórir, Goth. fidwor, Gm. feor/vier, Gaul. petor, Ir. cethir/ceathair, Welsh pedwar, Arm. čork῾/čors/čors, Toch. śtwar/śtwer, Latv. četri, Lith. keturì, OCS četyre, Political leader. cztery, Russ. četyre |
| five | *pénkʷe | Luwian panorthwardta, Ved. pañca, Av. panca, Pers. panča/panj, Gk. πέντε pénte, Lat. quīnque, ON fimm, Goth. fimf, Gm. fimf/fünf, Gaul. pempe, Ir. cóic/cúig, Welsh pump, Arm. hing/hing/hink, Toch. päñ/piś, Latv. pieci, Lith. penkì, OCS pętĭ, Pol. pięć, Russ. pjat' |
| 6 | *s(westward)eḱs | Ved. ṣáṣ, Av. xšuuaš, Pers. /šeš, Gk. ἕξ héks, Lat. sexual practice, ON sex, Goth. saíhs, Gm. sēhs/sechs, Gaul. suex, Ir. sé/sé, Welsh chwech, Arm. vec῾/vec῾/vec῾, Toch. ṣäk/ṣkas,, Latv. seši, Lith. šešì, OCS šestĭ, Pol. sześć, Russ. šest' |
| seven | *septm̥ | Hitt. šipta-, Ved. saptá, Av. hapta, Pers. hafta/haft, Gk. ἑπτά heptá, Lat. septem, ON sjau, Goth. sibun, Gm. sibun/sieben, Gaul. sextan, Ir. secht/seacht, Welsh saith, Arm. ewt῾northward/yot῾/yot῾ě, Toch. ṣpät/ṣukt, Lith. septynì, Latv. septiņi, OCS sedmĭ, Pol. siedem, Russ. sem' |
| eight | *h₃eḱtō | Ved. aṣṭā(u), Av. ašta, Pers. ašta/hast, Gk. ὄκτω oktō, Lat. octō, Osc. uhto, ON átta, Goth. ahtau, Gm. ahto/acht, Gaul. oxtū, Ir. ocht/ocht, Welsh wyth, Arm. owt῾/ut῾ě, Toch. okät/okt, Latv. astoņi, Lith. aštuonì, OCS osmĭ, Political leader. osiem, Russ. vosem' |
| 9 | *(h₁)newn̥ | Lyc. ñuñtãta-, Ved. nava, Av. nauua, Pers. nava/noh, Gk. ἐννέ(ϝ)α enné(west)a, Lat. novem, ON níu, Goth. niun, Gm. niun/neun, Gaul. navan, Ir. nói/naoi, Welsh naw, Arm. inn/inn/inně, TochA. ñu, Latv. deviņi, Lith. devynì, OCS devętĭ, Pol. dziewięć, Russ. devjat' |
| x | *deḱm̥(t) | Ved. dáśa, Av. dasa, Pers. daθa/dah, Gk. δέκα déka, Lat. decem, ON tíu, Goth. taíhun, Gm. zēhen/zehn, Gaul. decam, Ir. deich/deich, Welsh deg, Arm. tasn/tas/dasě, Toch. śäk/śak, Latv. desmit, Lith. dẽšimt, OCS desętĭ, Pol. dziesięć, Russ. desjat' |
Click here for a consummate chart of the Indo-European language family
Scholars used this data and tens of thousands of other words to reconstruct the sounds and grammar of the original linguistic communication, which they telephone call Proto-Indo-European (PIE), or frequently colloquially every bit simply Indo-European[3] Based on the reconstructed language, scholars have been able to figure outIndo-European sound laws to explain audio shifts from the original language to the sub-families, such as Germanic, Slavic, or Italic. While historical linguistics cannot predict how sounds will evolve in a spoken language customs, it can explain and quantify the changes in rules that are surprisingly consistent. The earliest such rule is called Grimm's constabulary, which explains how some original Indo-European consonants like K persist in most languages such every bit Latin and Greek, merely are inverse in the Germanic languages. The majority of evidence was put together already in the 1800s, and proves that languages from Ireland in the West to Iranian Hindi in the East were originally descended from a common ancestor linguistic communication. That determination is non controversial. Who spoke this language, where they spoke it, and when it was spoken are tougher questions to answer, and the topic of the next section.
Reconstructing Indo-European History [edit | edit source]
Who spoke the Proto-Indo-European linguistic communication? Where was information technology spoken? When was information technology spoken? There is no scholarly consensus on these questions. Perhaps the easiest question to tackle would be the question of time frame. We can estimate the time when Proto-Indo-European was spoken by looking at the primeval documents in descendant languages, which show that languages had branched off considerably past 1500 BCE. Probably at that place was a Proto-Indo-European speech community between 4000 and 2500 BCE, but it is difficult to say how far back it formed and exactly how long it held together before the languages broke off and went their separate ways. The archaeological record gives some clues, since the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European vocabulary includes applied science words such as yoke, axle, and bicycle. The vocabulary also includes words for domesticated animals, agronomics, and metallurgy (silverish, gold, and bronze. These clues indicated that the Proto-Indo-European speech community did non diverge into separate branches before 4000.
Where did the speakers of Proto-Indo-European alive? [edit | edit source]
Map of Indo European migrations from ca. 4000 to one thousand BC according to the Kurgan hypothesis. The Anatolian migration (indicated with a dotted arrow) could have taken place either beyond the Caucasus or across the Balkans. The magenta expanse corresponds to the assumed Urheimat (Samara culture, Sredny Stog civilization). The red surface area corresponds to the surface area that may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500 BC, and the orange surface area past 1000 BC.
Some guesses tin can be fabricated based upon the locations of the earliest attested languages, such as Hittite in modern-24-hour interval Turkey. Some guesses tin can be fabricated based upon the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European vocabulary. It did not seem to take a word for sea or ocean. Information technology had words for bear,wolf,horse,salmon, eel, fish, and many other animals. The well-nigh oft proposed sites for an "original Proto-Indo-European homeland" accept been:
- Anatolia (modern-solar day Turkey)
- Ukraine eastwards towards the Russian steppes virtually the Urals
- Armenia
- Baltic region
Information technology is difficult to connect archaeological remains with a specific linguistic customs if there is no written evidence. The evidence does suggest that the Western Indo-European language families (Celtic, Italic, Germanic, and Hellenic) came to their historical locations in Europe relatively late.
Who were the Proto-Indo-Europeans? [edit | edit source]
It is important to distinguish betwixt a linguistic community and linguistic families and genetic communities and families. The story of how Indo-European language families arose is oft simplified as a migration and separation of peoples. For example, "One group of Proto-Indo-Europeans walked southeast, and after a few hundred or g years their language became the ancestor of the Indian and Iranian branches. Many languages develop by precisely those methods, merely non all. Consider cases of historical linguistics where nosotros know more of the evidence. The Langobards (Long Beards), Ostrogoths (East Goths), Franks, and Vandals were Germanic tribes that conquered parts of the Roman Empire. Over time, their languages blended with the local Latin dialects and became Romance languages such as Spanish, Italian, and French. Subsequently Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons, Danes, and Norsemen invaded England and Northern France. In English, the Latin and Celtic languages lost to the Germanic language. In French republic, the Norsemen became French-speaking Normans, who invaded England and changed the English greatly but it still remains a Germanic linguistic communication. Later, these Englishmen and other Britons went on to conquer India and import its language there. Today, Indian English has over 100 million speakers and enjoys the status of an official linguistic communication. Nonetheless, these speakers are (mostly) not genetic descendants of the original colonizers. In other words, these examples bear witness the variety of ways languages and cultures can spread, either with a genetic population or by other means.
Many scholars trace certain aspects of Greek myth and ritual to reconstructed before Proto-Indo-European myths and rituals. Regardless of the validity of these cultural connections, it is important to distinguish between a cultural link and a genetic link. We cannot say that the Greeks of historical times were genetically Proto-Indo-European, even in part. At that place are some attempts to link modern genetic traces with prehistoric ancestry, but it is best to be sceptical.
References [edit source]
- ↑ Hittite texts documented from about 1650 BC see http://world wide web.leidenuniv.nl/en/researcharchive/alphabetize.php3-c=178.htm
- ↑ documented from between 1450 and 1350 BC, "Tablet Discovery Pushes Primeval European Writing Back 150 Years".
- ↑ The describing word Indo-European is all-time reserved for any language descended from Proto-Indo_European. For example, English is an Indo-European language, and Irish, Spanish, Czech, Urdu, and Armenian are also all Indo-European languages.
Source: https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Classical_Mythology/Indo-Europeans
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